Table 20 Curves generated in Figures 48 and 49 illustrating maximum cut slope angles for coarse grained soils are organized according to five soil types:. Well graded material with angular granular particles; extremely dense with fines that cannot be molded by hand when moist; difficult or impossible to dig with shovel; penetration test blow court greater than 40 blows per decimeter. Poorly graded material with rounded or low percentage of angular granular particles; dense and compact with fines that are difficult to mold by hand when moist; difficult to dig with shovel; penetration test approximately 30 blows per decimeter. Fairly well graded material with subangular granular particles; intermediate density and compactness with fines that can be easily molded by hand when moist (Plasticity Index 10); easy to dig with shovel; penetration test blow count approximately 20 blows per decimeter. Well graded material with angular granular particles; loose to intermediate density; fines have low plasticity (Plasticity Index = 3 times height of cut) below cut. (After USES, 1973). Soil Type Maximum Height (m) 1 Slope Ratio (h:v) 1 24 0.5:1 2 2 12 0.5:1 3 2 6 0.5:1 4 3 3 1:1 5 3 1.5 1:1 1 If it is necessary to exceed this height consult with geologic or materials engineer.
Benching will not improve stability as stability is nearly independent of slope ratio on these slopes. 2 If the slope of the natural ground exceeds 20° (36 percent), then the natural slope may be unstable. A detailed field investigation is necessary to check this condition prior to- design or construction phases.
3 If the slope of the natural ground exceeds 10° (18 percent), then the natural slope may be unstable. A detailed field investigation is necessary to check this condition prior to design or construction phases. Minimum fill slope ratio for compacted fills. (US Forest Service, 1973). Soil type Slope not subject to inundation Slope subject to inundation Minimum percent compaction Hard, angular rock, blasted or ripped 1.2:1 1.5:1 - GW 1.3:1 1.8:1 90 1 GP, SW 1.5:1 2:1 90 1 GM, GC, SP 1.8:1 3:1 90 1 SM, SC 2 Figure 48, Soil 3 Figure 49, Soil 3 90 Figure 48, Soil 4 Figure 49, Soil 4 no control ML, CL 2 Figure 48, Soil 4 Figure 49, Soil 4 90 Figure 48, Soil 5 Figure 49, Soil 4 no control MH, OH 2 Figure 50, Soil 3 Figure 50, Soil 4 90 Figure 50, Soil 4 Figure 50, Soil 5 no control 1 With no compaction control flatten slope by 25 percent.
Stopping Sight distance S: On crest curves, S is a function of overall design speed of the road and driver's comfort. On most forest roads with design speeds from 15 km/hr to 30 km/hr, the minimum stopping sight distance is 20 and 55 meters respectively ( see Ch.
2 Do not use any slope steeper than 1.5:1 for these soil types. 3.2.4 Road Prism Selection In the planning stage (Chapter 2) basic questions such as road uses, traffic volume requirements and road standards have been decided.
The road standard selected in the planning stage defines the required travel width of the road surface. The road design process uses the travel width as a departure point from which the necessary subgrade width is derived.
The road design process which deals with fitting a road template into the topography uses the subgrade width for cut and fill calculations. Therefore, ditch and ballast requirements need to be defined for a given road segment in order to arrive at the proper subgrade width or template to be used. Example: (see also Figure 52.): Travelled road width is established at 3.0 meters. Ballast material is pit-run rock.
Shoulder slope of ballast is 2:1. Soil and traffic characteristics require 0.45 m layer of ballast. The ditch line is to be 0.30 m deep with slopes of 1:1 and 2:1. Fill widening of 0,6 m is added because of fill slope height. Total subgrade width is therefore: 3.0 m traveled width + (2.9 m) shoulder + (0.9 m) ditch line + (0.6 m) fill widening = 6.3 m total subgrade width Figure 52.
Interaction of subgrade dimension, roadwidth, ballast depth, ditch width and fill widening. Table 21 lists various subgrade width for a 3.00 m traveled road width and different ballast depth requirements. Required subgrade width (exclusive fo fill widening) as a function of road width, ballast depth and ditch width. Roadwidth = 3.0 m, ditch = 0.9 m (1:1 and 2:1 slopes), shoulder-slopes 2:1. Ballast Depth.
Through-cut Ditch on both Sides meters 0.30 4.2 5.1 6.0 0.45 4.8 5.7 6.0 0.60 5.4 6.3 7.2 0.75 6.0 6.9 7.8 Fill widening is another factor which modifies the subgrade or template width independent of traveled road width or ballast depth. Fill widening should be considered in cases where fills cannot be compacted with proper equipment and where no compaction control is performed.
In such cases fill widening of 0.30 m are recommended where fill slope height is less than 2.00 m. Fill slope height in excess of 2.00 m should have 0,60 m of fill widening (see Figure 53). Fill slope height in excess of 6.00 m should be avoided altogether because of potential stability problems.
Fill slope height Hf = 2m add 0.60 m. Maximum Fill slope height Hf 28. An alternative to the cost of a heavier pavement structure is the use of geotextile fabrics. Fabrics have been found to be an economically acceptable alternative to conventional construction practices when dealing with less than desirable soil material. Forest Service has successfully used fabrics as filters for surface drainage, as separatory features to prevent subgrade soil contamination of base layers, and as subgrade restraining layers for weak subgrades.
A useful guide for the selection and utilization of fabrics in constructing and maintaining low volume roads is presented by Steward, et al. This report discusses the current knowledge regarding the use of fabrics in road construction and contains a wealth of information regarding physical properties and costs of several brands of fabric currently marketed in the United States and abroad. Proper thickness design of ballast layer not only helps to reduce erosion but also reduces costs by requiring only so much rock as is actually required by traffic volume (number of axles) and vehicle weight (axle weight-wheel loads). The principle of thickness design is based on the system developed by AASHO (American Association of State Highway Officials) and adapted by Barenberg et al. (1975) to soft soils. Barenberg developed a relationship between required ballast thickness and wheel or axle loads. Soil strength can be simply measured either with a cone penetrometer or vane shear device, such as a Torvane.
Thickness design for soft soil is based on the assumption of foundation shear failure where the bearing capacity of the soil is exceeded. For rapid loading, such as the passage of a wheel, the bearing capacity q is assumed to depend on cohesion only. Q = Nc. C where q = Bearing capacity of a soil (kg/cm²) C = Cohesive strength of soil (kg/cm²). Nc = Dimensionless bearing capacity factor Based on Barenberg's work, Steward, et al. (1977) proposed a value of 2.8 to 3.3 and 5.0 to 6.0 for Nc. The significance of the bearing capacity q is as follows: A.
Q = 2.8 C is the stress level on the subgrade at which very little rutting will occur under heavy traffic (more than 1000 trips of 8,160 kg axle equivalencies) without fabric. Q = 3.3 C is the stress level at which heavy rutting will occur under light axle loadings (less than 100 trips of 8,160 kg axle equivalencies) without fabric. Q = 5.0 C is the stress level at which very little rafting would be expected to occur at high traffic volumes (more than 1000 trips of 8,160 kg equivalency axles) using fabric. Q = 6.0 C is the stress level at which heavy rutting will occur under light axle loadings (less than 100 trips of 8,160 kg axle equivalencies) using fabric.(Heavy rutting is defined as ruts having a depth of 10 cm or greater. Very little rutting is defined as ruts having a depth of less than 5 cm extending into the subgrade.) Charts relating soil strength (as measured with a vane shear device) to axle load and ballast thickness are shown in Figure 56 through 58.
Figure 56 is based on a single axle, single wheel load. Figure 57 is based on a double wheel, single axle toad, and Figure 58 is based on a tandem wheel configuration typical of 3 axle dump trucks or stinger type log-trucks. It should be noted that axle and wheel configuration have a tremendous impact on the load bearing capacity of a road.
The relationship between axle load and subgrade failure is not linear. Allowing 16,000 kg axle load vehicle to use a road designed for a standard axle load of 8,200 kg, is equivalent to 15 trips with the 8,200 kg axle load vehicle. Premature rut formation and its prevention depends on the selection of the proper axle load and strict enforcement of the selected load standard. Some typical truck configurations, gross vehicle weights (GVW), and axle or wheel loads are given in Table 24. Vehicles under 3 tonnes GVW have no measurable effect on subgrade stress and deterioration. D esign Example A road is to be constructed to access a watershed. Because of erosive conditions and traffic volumes, only 5 cm of rutting can be tolerated.
Expected traffic volume is high (greater than 1,000 axle loads). Three vehicle types are using the road: 1. Utility truck - 10 tonnes GVW; 4,500 kg single wheel load (9,000 kg axle load on rear axle, loaded).
Dump truck -15 tonnes GVW with two axles; (11 tonnes rear axle load or 5.5 tonnes per dual wheel). Log truck - 36 tonnes GVW with 5 axles, rear tandem axle load equals 15.9 tonnes or 7.95 tonnes per tandem wheel set.
Soil tests: Visually segment the road into logical construction segments based on soil type. Take soil strength measurements with vane shear device.
Measurements should be taken during wet soil conditions, its weakest state. Take at least 10 vane shear readings at approximately 10 cm and 40 cm below the surface (in mineral soil). Tabulate readings in descending order from largest to smallest value. Your design shear strength is the 25th percentile shear strength-the value at which 75 percent of the soil strength readings are higher. Vane Shear Readings 1. 0.58 kg/cm² 2. 0.36 - 0.36 (25 percentile) - Design strength to be used in calculation.
0.30 Subgrade strength for design purpose is taken as 0.36 kg/cm². Ballast Depth Calculation: Calculate the soil stress value without fabric for little rutting (less than 5 cm for more than 1,000 axle loads). Q = 2.8. 0.36 = 1.01 kg/cm² (Conversion factor: Multiply kg/cm² by 14.22 to get psi. This gives a value of 14.33 psi in this example). In the case of the utility truck with 4,500 kg (10,000 Ibs) wheel load, enter Figure 56 at 14.33 on the bottom line and read upwards to the 4,500 kg (10,000 Ibs) single wheel load. A reading of 42 cm (16.5 in.) is obtained.
Since 7 - 12 cm additional ballast is needed to compensate for intrusion from the soft subgrade, a total of 49 - 54 cm of ballast is required. When fabric is used, a factor of 5.0 (little rutting for high traffic volumes) is applied to determine the ballast depth. Q = (5.0. 0.36. 14.22) + 25.6 psi A reading of 28 cm (11 in.) is obtained from Figure 56 indicating a saving of 21-26 cm of rock when fabric is used. The same analysis is carried out for the other vehicles. Ballast depth required to support the other vehicles is shown in Table 24.
Required depth of ballast for three design vehicles. Road designed to withstand large traffic volumes ( 1,000 axle loads) with less than 5 cm of rutting. Bearing Capacity q C.Nc.14.22 Utility truck 10 t GVW 4 500 kg (10,000 Ibs) Single wheel Dump truck 15 t GVW 5,500 kg (12,000 Ibs) Dual wheel Log truck 36 t GVW 7,850 kg (17,500 Ibs) Tandem wheel Ballast Thickness Without. Fabric 14.33 psi 41 + 10 = 51 cm (1.01 kg/cm²) 42 + 10 = 52 cm 40 + 10 = 50 cm With. Fabric 25.6 psi (1.80 kg/cm²) 31 cm 28 cm 24 cm. 7 -12 cm additional rock is needed to compensate for contamination from the soft subgrade.
The fabric separates the subgrade from the ballast. No intrusion of fines into subgrade. The dump truck (15 t GVW) represents the most critical load and requires 52 cm of rock over the subgrade to provide an adequate road surface. If fabric were to be used, the utility truck (10 t GVW) would be the critical vehicle. The rock requirement would be reduced by 21 cm to 31 cm. A cost analysis would determine if the cost of fabric is justified. The above example shows that a simple, 2 axle truck can stress the subgrade more than a 36 tonne log truck.
The engineer should consider the possibility and frequency of overloading single-axle, single wheel trucks. Overloading a 4,500 kg (10,000 Ibs) single wheel load truck to 6,750 kg (15,000 lb) increases the the rock requirements from 51 to 62 cm. Ballast thickness curves for single wheel loads (from Steward, et al., 1977). Conversion factors: 1 inch = 2.5 cm; 1 kg/cm² = 14.22 psi. Multiply (kg / cm²) with 14.22 to get (PSI) Figure 57. Ballast thickness curves for dual wheel loads (from Steward, et al., 1977). Conversion factors: 1 inch = 2.5 cm; 1 kg/cm² = 14.22 psi.
Multiply (kg / cm²) with 14.22 to get (PSI) Figure 58. Ballast thickness curves for tandem wheel loads (form Steward et al 1977). Conversion factors: 1 inch = 2.5 cm; 1 kg/cm² = 14.22 psi. Multiply (kg / cm²) with 14.22 to get (PSI) LITERATURE CITED Armstrong, C. A method of measuring road surface wear. Highway materials, soils, and concretes.
Prentice-Hall Co., Reston, VA. Barenberg, E. Evaluation of Soil Aggregate Systems with Mirafy Fabrics. University o f Illinois, Urbana - Champaign, Illinois.
Use of the slip circle inslope stability analysis. Geotechnique 5(1):7-17. Burroughs, Jr., E. Chalfant and M.
Slope stability in road construction. Of Interior, Bureau of Land Management and Montana State University. Portland, Oregon. Burroughs, Jr.,E.
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In: Symposium on effects of forest landslides on erosion and slope stability. University of Hawaii, p. Maximum grades for log trucks on forest roads. USDA Forest Service, Eng. Syst., Washington D.C. 1982: A guide for determining road width on curves for single-lane forest roads.
USDA Forest Service, Eng. Syst., Washington D.C. Limit analysis of stability of slopes. Soil Mechanics and Foundations Div., Proc. Paper 7828, Jan. Dietz, R., W. Knigge and H.
Loeffler, 1984. Verlag Paul Parey, Hamburg, Germany, pp. Kochenderfer, J. Soil losses from a minimum-standard truck road constructed in the Appalachians.
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Joseph, Michigan. Wald-und Gueterstrassen Eigenverlag, Pfaffhausen, Switzerland. Vertical curves and their influence on the performance of log trucks. USDA Forest Service, Eng. Syst., Washington D.C. Forest Engineering Handbook.
Prepared for U. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. Simplified slope design for low volume roads in mountaineous areas. In: Low volume roads. Proceedings, June 1975. Special Report 160.
Research Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., pp. Sediment production from gravel-surfaced forest roads, Clearwater Basin, Washington. FRI-UW-8108, Univ.
Of Washington, Seattle. Sediment production from forest road surfaces. Water Resources Research 20:1753-61. Williamson, and J. Guidelines for use of fabrics in construction and maintenance of low volume roads. Springfield, VA 22161.
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IRC:SP:532002 23. MORT&H Manual for Construction and 800.00 Supervision of Bituminous Works, 2001 30.00 24. Semi Semina nar, r, 1994 1994 Proceedings – Seminar on “Bituminous Roads, Design and Construction Aspects”, New Delhi, 25-26 August, 1994 10.00 100.00 S.
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(Rs.) Design, Construction and Maintenance Maintenance of Cement Cement Concrete Pavements IRC:15-2002 Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Construction of Concrete Roads (Third Revision) 200. 200.00 00 10.
IRC:44-1976 Tentative Guidelines for Cement Concrete Mix Design for Pavements (for Non-Air Entrained and Continuously Graded Concrete) (First Revision) 80.00 10.00 3. IRC:57-1974 Recommended Practice for Sealing of Joints in Concrete Pavements 40.00 10.00 IRC:58-2002 Guidelines for the Design of Plain Jointed Rigid Pavements for Highways (Second Revision) (with floppy) 200. 200.00 00 10. IRC:59-1976 Tentative Guidelines for the Design of Gap Graded Cement Concrete Mixes for Road Pavements 24.00 10.00 6. IRC:61-1976 Tentative Guidelines for the Construction of 40.00 Cement Concrete Pavements in Hot Weather 10.00 7.
IRC:68-1976 Tentative Guidelines on Cement-Flyash Concrete for Rigid Pavement Construction 24.00 10.00 8. IRC:76-1979 Tentative Guidelines for Structural Strength Evaluation of Rigid Airfield Pavements 32.00 10.00 9. IRC:77-1979 Tentative Guidelines for Repair of Concrete Pavements Using Synthetic Resins 36.00 10.00 10.
IRC: IRC:84 84-1 -198 983 3 Code of Practice for Curing of Cement Concrete Pavements 24.00 10.00 11. IRC: IRC:85 85-1 -198 983 3 Recommended Practice for Accelerated Strength Testing & Evaluation of Concrete for 24.00 Road and Airfield Constructions 10.00 12.
IRC: IRC:91 91-1 -198 985 5 Tentative Guidelines for Construction of 24.00 Cement Concrete Pavements in Cold Weather 10.00 13. IRC: IRC:10 101-1 1-198 988 8 Guidelines for Design of Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement with Elastic Joints 32.00 10.00 1.
IRC:SP:171977 Recommendations About Overlays on Cement Concrete Pavements 36.00 10.00 15. IRC:SP:461997 Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete for Pavements 72.00 10.00 16.
IRC:SP:491988 S. Code/Document No. Guidelines for the Use of Dry Lean Concrete as Sub-base for Rigid Pavement Title of the Publication 60.00 Price (Rs.) 10.00 Packing & Postage. (Rs.) Project Preparation, Contract Management and Quality Quality Control Control 1.
IRC:42-1972 Proforma for Record of Test Values of Locally 40.00 Available Pavement Construction Materials 10.00 2. IRC:104-1988 Guidelines for Environmental Impact Assessment of Highway Projects 60.00 10.00 3.
IRC:SP:111988 Handbook of Quality Control for Construction of Roads and Runways (Second Revision) 160. 160.00 00 10.0 10.00 0 4. IRC:SP:162004 Guidelines for Surface Evenness of Highway Pavements (First Revision) 60.00 5. IRC:SP:192001 Manual for Survey, Investigation and Preparation of Road Projects (Second Revision) 320. 320.00 00 20.0 20.00 0 6.
IRC:SP:572001 Guidelines for Quality Systems for Road Construction 400. 400.00 00 20.0 20.00 0 S. Code/Document No. Title of the Publication 1.(K).
IRC:SP:202002 Rural Roads Manual 2. IRC:SP:261984 Report Containing Recommendations of IRC Regional Workshops on Rural Road 32.00 Development (with Supplementary Notes) 10.00 3. Seminar, 1989 Preliminary Publication – International Seminar on “Rural Transportation”, New Delhi, 26-28 April, 1989 250.00 30.00 4. Keynote Papers – International Seminar on Seminar, 1989 “Rural Transportation”, New Delhi, 26-28 April, 1989 125.00 20.00 5. MORD Specifications for Rural Roads 500.00 30.00 6. MORD Standard Data Book for Analysis of Rates for 800.00 Rural Roads.00 30 30.00 S.
Code/Document No. Title of the Publication 1.(L). Price (Rs.) Packing & Postage. (Rs.) Hill Roads 1. IRC:52-2001 Recommendations About the Alignment Survey and Geometric Design of Hill Roads (Second Revision) 2. IRC:SP:48-1998 Hill Road Manual 120.
120.00 00 10.0 10.00 0 600.00 30.00 Some Important Papers on Design, Construction and Maintenance of Hill Roads, 200. 200.00 00 20.0 20.00 0 1985 3. Seminar, 1985 Proceedings – Seminar on “Construction of 48.00 Roads in Hill Areas”, Nainital, 7-9 July, 1985 20.00 5. Seminar, 1995 Proceedings – Seminar on “Design, Construction and Maintenance of Hill Roads”, Shimla, 19-20 June, 1995 60.00 10.00 6. HRB SR No.15, 1996 State of the Art: Landslide Correction Techniques 240.
240.00 00 10.0 10.00 0 7. Paper No.257, 1967 Construction of a Ghat Road from Bodinayakanur to Bodimettu by E.C. Chandrasekharan 24.00 4.
Code/Document No. Title of the Publication 1.(M). Price (Rs.) 10.00 Packing & Postage. (Rs.) Road Maintenance & Rehabilitation 1. MORT&H Manual for Maintenance of Roads, 1983 120.00 10.00 2. MORT&H Report of the Committee on Norms for Maintenance of Roads in India, 2001 500. 500.00 00 30.0 30.00 0 3.
MORT&H Guidelines for Maintenance Management of Primary, Secondary and Urban Roads, 2004 300. 300.00 00 40.0 40.00 0 4. Seminar, 1990 Proceedings – Seminar on “Modernisation of 140. 140.00 00 15.0 15.00 0 Highways”, New Delhi, 17-19 May, 1990 5. Seminar, 1999 6. Paper No.317, 1997 Proceedings – International Seminar on “Highway Rehabilitation and Maintenance”, New Delhi, 12-13 November, 1999 Experience in the Improvement and Modernization of Roads in Tamil Nadu by E.C. Chandrasekharan 100.
100.00 00 10.0 10.00 0 40.00 10.00 S. Code/Document No. Title of the Publication 1.(N). Price (Rs.) Packing & Postage.
(Rs.) Road Drainage 1. IRC:SP:42-1994 Guidelines on Road Drainage 160.00 10.00 2. IRC:SP:50-1999 Guidelines on Urban Drainage 160.00 10.00 S. Code/Document No. Title of the Publication Price (Rs.) Packing & Postage. (Rs.) 1.(O).
Road Machinery 1. IRC:43-1972 Recommended Practice for Tools, Equipment and Appliances for Concrete Pavement Construction 2. IRC:72-1978 Recommended Practice for Use and Upkeep of Equipment, Tools and Appliances for Bituminous Pavement Construction 60.00 10.00 3. IRC:90-1985 Guidelines of Selection, Operation and Maintenance of Bituminous Hot Mix Plant 80.00 10.00 4.
IRC:SP:221980 Recommendation for the Sizes for each Type of Road Making Machinery to Cater to the General Demand of Road Works 24.00 10.00 5. IRC:SP:251984 Gopi and his Road Roller-Guidelines on Maintenance of Road Rollers 36.00 10.00 6. IRC:SP:291994 Directory of Indigenous Manufacturers of Road/ Bridge Construction Machinery & Important Bridge Components (First Revision) 120. 120.00 00 10.0 10.00 0 7. IRC:SP:341989 General Guidelines About the Equipment for Bituminous Surface Dressing 60.00 10.00 8. IRC:SP:391992 Guidelines on Bulk Bitumen Transportation & 80.00 Storage Equipment 10.00 9.
MORT&H Handbook on Road Construction Machinery, 1985 40.00 10.00 Under Revision IRC Specifications, Standards, Design Codes for Urban Roads 1 IRC: IRC: 9-19 9-1972 72 Traf Traffi fic c Cens Census us on Non Non Urba Urban n Road Roads s ( Firs Firstt Revision ) 60.00 2 IRC: 69-1977 Space Standards for Roads in Urban Areas 3 IRC: 70-1977 Guidelines on Regulation and control of mixed Traffic in Urban Areas 4 IRC: 73-1980 Geometric Design Standards for Rural (Non-Urban) 5 IRC: 80-1981 Type Design for Pick-up bus stops on Rural (i.e. Non-Urban) Highways 6 IRC: 86-1983 Geometric Design Standards for Urban Roads in Plains 7 IRC: 92-1985 Guidelines for the Design of Interchanges in Urban Areas 8 IRC: 98-1997 Guidelines on accommodation of Underground Utility services along and Across Roads in Urban areas First Revision) 9 IRC: 106-1990 Guidelines for Capacity of Urban Roads in Plain Areas.